hypnotic intervention

hypnotic intervention

Research Methods paper (Literature Review & State of problem)
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 2000, 91, 1057-1075. O Perceptual and Motor Skills 2000

EFFECTS OF HYPNOSIS ON FLOW STATES AND GOLF PERFORMANCE ‘

JOHN PATES AND IAN MAYNARD

Sbeffield Hallam University

Summary.-This study examined the effects of an hypnotic intervention on flow states and golf-chipping performance of 3 participants. The study u d z e d an ideo- graphic ABA single-subject design combined with a procedure to assess the partici- pants’ internal experience (Wollman, 1986). The intervention involved relaxation, im- agery, hypnotic induction, hypnotic regression, and trigger control procedures over 5 wk. and 7 trials. Analysis indicated the 3 participants increased their mean golf-chip- ping performance from the trials in B a s e h e 1 to intervention, with 2 returning to Baseline 1 performance after the intervention phase at Baseline 2. The intensity of Bow experienced by the participants during the performance trials was measured us- ing Jackson and Marsh’s 1996 Flow State Scale. Two participants experienced higher flow during the intervention phase and much lower flow during Baselines 1 and 2. Fi- nally, participants indicated the intervention seemed useful in keeping them confident, relaxed, and in control. These results support the hypothesis that an hypnotic inter- vention can improve golf-chipping performance and increase feelings and cognitions associated with Bow.

The literature on sport psychology clearly indicates at least three differ- ent constructs underlying successful athletic performance. The first is flow (Cs~kszentrnihalyi, 1975; Furlong, 1976), defined as an intrinsically enjoyable experience. The second is peak performance (Privette, 1981; Privette & Landsman, 1983; Garfield, 1984), defined as an episode of superior function- ing, and the third is peak experience (Laski, 1962; Maslow, 1971), defined as an intense and highly valued moment. Ravizza (1977) and Privette (1983) have argued that in a given situation individuals may experience more than one of these phenomena. Indeed, a comparative analysis of these phenomena (Privette, 1983) suggested that they share many of the same quahties, includ- ing absorption, involvement, joy, valuing, self-identity, responsibility, sponta- neity, freedom, awareness of power, lost time and sp&ce, and temporality.

The evidence implies that the phenomena are interrelated, so that un- der certain circumstances the experience of one phenomenon may trigger a second and even a third (Privette, 1983; Privette & Bundrick, 1991, 1997; Jackson & Roberts, 1992). For this reason Grove and Lewis (1996) have indicated that these experiences can be collectively labelled ‘flow’ states.

‘Please address correspondence to John Pates, Centre for Sport and Exercise Science, Sheffield H+m University, Colle iate Crescent Campus, 39 Broomgrove Road, Sheffield, South York- shlre, S10 2BP or e-mail [email protected]).

1058 J. PATES & I. MAYNARD

The key to the flow experience as suggested by Cslkszentm~halyi (1975) is the relationship between s k d and challenge. When a balance occurs, there is flow. In contrast, when one perceives opportunities for action as mis- matched by one’s capabhties, then one experiences either boredom, worry, or anxiety depending upon the extent to which action opportunities (chal- lenge) and action capabilities (skill) diverge. This relationship was represent- ed in a model of the flow state initially developed by Csiks~entmihal~i and Bennet (197 1) and presented by CsLkszentmLhalyi (1975).

The occurrence of a flow situation, however, clearly depends upon one’s perception of what the challenges and one’s skllls are as opposed to the actual situation. It is possible, therefore, for different people to experi- ence flow, anxiety, worry, and boredom under the same objective level of action opportunities. In addition, there seem to be many variables that may influence this relationship.

Although there are clear limitations to the model, it st~Ll remains intu- itively appealing for its direct implications. For instance, it seems likely that the performance of athletes depends in part on the intensity of flow experi- enced. While there is much anecdotal and qualitative evidence supporting this conjecture (e.g., Ravizza, 1984), empirical evidence is rare (Jackson & C~ikszentmihal~i, 1999). Quantitative research has lagged behind experien- tial awareness of flow given the inherent difficulties of applying empirical methods to phenomenological experience. Recently, however, Jackson and Marsh (1996) developed a psychometrically valid and usable scale for assess- ing flow in sport and physical activity. Specifically, the Flow State Scale pro- vides a global quantitative measure of the flow experience or single quantita- tive measures of nine distinct components of flow.

The components of flow identified by Jackson and Marsh (19961, in- clude Challenge and Skill Balance, Action and Awareness Merging, Clear Goals, Unambiguous Feedback, Concentration on the Task at Hand, Para- dox of Control, Loss of Self-consciousness, Transformation of Time, and Autotelic Experience. This scale may aid research by allowing a quantitative examination of the relationship between the flow and performance.

From a phenomenological perspective, flow states are similar to hyp- notic states (Unestahl, 1983; Grove & Lewis, 1996). Interviews conducted by Unestahl (1983) on many elite athletes after they experienced peak perfor- mance show flow states and hypnotic states share many of the same verbal descriptions. These include changes in thinking, e.g., paralysis by analysis or too much thinkmg precluding action, memory (e.g., amnesia), perception (e.g., slow motion and enlargement of objects), dissociation (e.g., pain de- tachment), and information processing (e.g., parallel processing). Other shared elements of these states include dissociation and detachment from one’s surroundings, absorption, feehgs of control, and ~erceptual distor-

HYPNOSIS AND FLOW STATES IN GOLF 1059

tions such as altered perceptions of time (Kihlstrom, 1985). Support for the association between hypnosis and flow states has also come from other sources. For example, Masters (1992) found a positive relation between dis- sociation and hypnotic abhty in marathon runners.

Arguably the strongest support for a connection berween flow states and hypnotic states comes from the work of Gallwey (1974) and Unestahl (1986) as specifically, both defined a flow state as a hemisphere shift, that is, an activation of the right hemisphere and a corresponding deactivation of the left hemisphere of the brain. Both have also argued that, because flow states are generally identified with right hemisphere dominance, then a shift in consciousness from the left hemisphere (dominant mode) to the right hemisphere (alternative mode) wdl give better access to functions important for good athletic performance. Lnterestingly, theoretical explanations of hyp- notic phenomena suggest hypnosis may fachtate the process of hemispheric s h h . For example, Orne’s theory of cortical inhibition (1959) proposed that hypnosis may inhibit the functions of the dominant cerebral hemisphere and allow the nondominant hemisphere functions to take control. Empirical sup- port for Orne’s theory is evident in contemporary electrocortical research (Graffin, Ray, & Lundy, 1995; Crawford, Clarke, & Kitner-Triolo, 1996).

Electrocortical research utilises an electroencephalogram (EEG) as a major method of studying the working of the brain by detecting changes in electrical charges in different parts of the brain. More specifically, EEG mea- sures brain wave patterns of activity, namely, delta, beta, theta, and alpha waves. Lnterestingly, Graffin, et al. (1995) found that, when hypnotisable subjects were given the suggestion to e h i n a t e pain, theta activity shifted hemispheric dominance from the left to the right anterior temporal region. The Crawford, et al. (1996) investigation of high and low hypnotizable sub- jects also showed that highly hypnotizable persons had significantly greater hemispheric alpha, theta, and beta activity in the right parietal region than those who scored low. The literature also indicates that hypnosis generates more theta power, resulting in greater feelings of pleasure (Stenberg, 1992) and improved attention (Crawford, et al., 1996). Such evidence suggests that hypnosis may assist purposeful hemispheric shifts to a desired state ideal for performance. That is, hypnotic training may increase personal control over flow states, which may in turn enhance performance.

Literature in sport psychology, which supports the positive effects of hypnosis for improving performance, is extremely h i t e d . For example, Baer (1980) found that superior performance was attainable by volleyball players who uthsed an hypnotic intervention before games. Ldcewise, similar irn- provements have been found for basketball players (Schreiber, 1991) after training in hypnosis. Unestahl (1983) provided case studies and anecdotal evidence for the effectiveness of a self-hypnotic technique (The Inner Mental

1060 J. PATES & I. MAYNARD

Training Program) in improving the performance of elite Swedish athletes from 24 national teams.

Recently, Pates, Maynard, and Westbury (in press) criticized these stud- ies for poor experimental control and pointed out that in many of these investigations information on the internal experiences of the participants during performance was notably absent. To provide greater control Pates, et al. (in press) uthzed an idiographic single-subject replication-reversal (ABA) design to analyse the effects of an hypnotic intervention on set and jump- shooting performance by basketball players. Analysis indicated that hypnosis could be a highly effective tool for improving shooting accuracy. Also, cog- nitions normally associated with peak performance states (Privette, 1983) and successful athletic performance may be accessed during other events us- ing hypnotic techniques.

One of the fundamental features of the approach of Pates, et al. (in press), which is different from previous research, was the use of trigger con- trol techniques. Triggers are words, sounds, images, or a natural part of a routine that one can do or think about to induce a response usually ob- tained during the induction phase of the hypnotic procedure. Unestahl (1983, 1986) implied that sport psychologists may use two types of triggers in applied work. The first are ‘natural triggers’ which are usually part of a nor- mal routine, e.g., holding the grip of a golf club; the second are ‘artificial triggers’ which do not form part of a normal routine, e.g., a piece of music.

A second important feature of this approach was hypnotic regression which invites athletes to relive an earlier life experience of optimal perfor- mance with no conscious awareness of any reality beyond the time frame be- ing experienced. There is thorough dissociation from reference to the pres- ent. ~i a result of the change perception the rekindling of the partici- pant’s experiences tended to be more hes the t ic and emotive (Hmmond, 1990).

During the regression phase of the intervention, Pates, et al. (in press) conditioned positive emotions associated with a basketball player’s ideal per- formance state to a trigger to d o w access to an optimal performance experi- ence during a later event. Lnterestingly, when the rrlggers were initiated by each of the players during testing, they not only reported feehgs and emo- tions associated with their ideal performance but also had a higher percent- age of shooting accuracy.

The current study was done to extend the work of Pates, et al. (in press) by evaluating the effectiveness of an hypnotic intervention in facilitat- ing flow states and performance accuracy by athletes who uthze closed mo- tor skills. Golf-chipping, a good example of a closed motor skill, was chosen as the criterion task. It is also one of the most important components of a

HYPNOSIS AND FLOW STATES IN GOLF 1061

golf performance and has not previously been used as a criterion task in re- search on sport psychology.

It was expected that during hypnosis emotions associated with the play- er’s optimal performance could be conditioned to a trigger. It was then hy- pothesized that after conditioning, players using the trigger would experi- ence flow as a precondition of performance and then achieve greater accura- cy in the execution of a golf-chipping task. To simulate a more ecologically valid situation, the players performed under the stress of a competition.

In this study an ‘artificial’ trigger was used instead of a ‘natural’ trigger because the researchers wanted to ‘turn on’ and ‘turn off’ behavior each time the trigger was introduced or withdrawn. This would provide a clear demonstration of the internal validity of the intervention (Hrycaiko & Mar- tin, 1996) and also dustrate if a trigger could control the behavior.

A single-subject replication-reversal (ABA) was deemed the most appro- priate design for this exploration because it allows the monitoring of a rever- sal in behavior. Based on the recommendations of Wollman (1986) and oth- er researchers who have uthzed single-subject designs (e.g., Smith, 1988; Swain &Jones, 1995; Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996; Lerner, Ostrow, Yura, & Etzel, 1996), the present study also applied a procedure that monitored both flow states and the internal experience of each player.

Participants The participants were three male golfers, aged 21 years. They had hand-

icaps ranging from 24 to 18 and had at least six years of playing experience. The participants were carefully selected because all had previous experience of flow and had attained performance higher than their handicaps indicated. Also, none had previous experience with training methods in hypnosis. Prior to the study they were informed of the nature and extent of the investiga- tion, and all agreed to participate. The golfers also agreed not to practice or participate in competitive golf for the duration of the study.

Experimental Design A single-subject ABA research design (Kratochwdl, 1978) was imple-

mented to examine the effects of an hypnotic intervention on flow states and golf-chipping performance. This design was chosen to examine whether be- havior could be reversed, that is, ‘turned on’ or ‘turned off’ using trigger control techniques.

The design required assessment of a stable basehe performance on the dependent variable or a trend in the opposite direction of the change antici- pated when the treatment was introduced to each participant (Kazdin, 1992). Ln the present study the first baseline was assessed over seven trials and oc-

1062 J. PATES & I. MAYNARD

curred over a period of about five weeks. When a stable performance was achieved, the treatment (hypnotic intervention) was introduced. Based on the recommendations of Barlow and Hersen (1973, 1984), Cooper, Heron, and Heward (1987), and Kazdin (1992), the basehe and intervention phase had equivalent intervals. Consequently, the intervention phase also consisted of seven trials that occurred over a period of about five weeks. After with- drawal of the intervention the basehe phase was reinstated. LLkewise, the second baseline assessment involved seven trials which occurred over about five weeks. In total, data were collected on 21 trials over about 15 weeks.

Dependent Variables

Golf performance.-Golf-chipping shots were selected as the criterion task because golfers were fam~liar with the technique and it reflected an im- portant component of their performance and was a good example of a closed motor slull. These are slulls in which the environment is not chang- ing, and the performer can plan the movement we1 in advance (Schmidt, 1982). Golf performance was assessed, by measuring the distance the b d finished from the hole (radial error).

Flow analysis.-In adhtion to the performance data, information on the frequency and intensity of flow experienced by the players was assessed us- ing the Flow State Scale (Jackson & Marsh, 1996). The 36 items provide a quantitative measure of the nine dunensions of flow o u h e d by Cslkszent- mihalyi (1990). The dimensions measured are Challenge-Skd Balance, Ac- tion-Awareness Merging, Clear Goals, Unambiguous Feedback, Concentra- tion on task at hand, Sense of Control, Loss of Self-consciousness, Trans- formation of Time, and Autotelic Experience. The mean internal consistency estimate for the nine Flow State Scales was a = 33. For the purpose of this investigation a single global Flow State Scale score was calculated for the three players after each of the 21 trials.

Task To maximize effort and motivation as well as provide conditions nor-

mally experienced during a competition, a prize was awarded to the player who displayed the best average performance score over the 21 trials.

The site of the competition was a specially prepared golf course consist- ing of a fairway and target green. This outdoor facdtty was completely flat with no undulating slopes. Upon arriving at the site of the competition, the scoring system was explained. Before each trial each player was given 10 practice attempts at the target to familiarize themselves with the speed, pace, and condition of the chipping surface. A shot was then performed by each of the golfers from a distance of 20 m away from the target hole. The dis- tance from the hole each ball stopped was measured, and the player with the most accurate performance initiated the next shot at the target. The trial

HYPNOSIS AND FLOW STATES IN GOLF 1063

was terminated when all had completed 12 shots. A mean of 12 shots was the score for each performance trial. It should be noted that each trial lasted approximately 40 min. after which Flow State Scale scores and information on the internal experience of each player during performance were collected.

The reliability of the performance observations was assessed by compar- ing the judgements of two independent observers, simultaneously measuring the target behavior. The assessment took place prior to the study; the inter- observer agreement was 1 .OO.

Treatment: the Hypnosis Intervention

Training of participants in hypnosis took place immediately after the completion of Baseline 1 and was done in three stages. The first author who had successfully completed extensive training in a variety of hypnotic tech- niques dehvered the intervention. In the first stage of the intervention a play- er was encouraged to sit in a comfortable position and then was asked to fo- cus on breathing. Specifically, each was instructed to breathe deeply and to release air slowly while counting backwards from the number 10. They were then given a 15-min, session involving progressive muscular relaxation. The technique, originally pioneered by Jacobson (1938), involved these players tensing and relaxing parts of the body, whilst inhaling deeply. Suggestions to contrast differences between tense and relaxed muscles were also given.

The second stage was based on an Ericksonian hypnotic technique known as a staircase induction (Hammond, 1990). The staircase induction consisted of a journey, one step at a time, down a flight of 20 stairs. Partici- pants were told to see each stair in front of them and feel the stair under their feet. At the bottom of the stairs they were told they would see a door, and beyond the door they would see a room with a comfortable chair. The participants were then asked to sit down in the chair and focus on a small cinema screen on which appeared a relaxing scene. At this point the partici- pants were instructed to direct their attention to situations associated with re- laxation. For example, the images of a warm comfortable beach or the sen- sation of floating in water. Throughout this stage suggestions were given to reinforce both the experience of the progressive muscular relaxation and deep breathing.

In the third stage suggestions were given to help players regress and re- member a polysensory experience of an optimal performance and a mental state described as flow (Cskszentmihalyi, 1975). Specifically they were asked to include visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory aspects of their mem- ory of their best performance from an internal perspective. When a memory was accessed, a trigger was then introduced so an association was developed between the trigger and the variables responsible for the optimal perfor- mance. The trigger used was personal music participants recalled as associ-

1064 J. PATES & 1. MAYNARD

ated with their particular optimal performance so the type and length of mu- sic was not standardized.

The golfers were then told to see themselves rising from the chair and walking out of the door and up the staircase. As they ascended the staircase they would feel refreshed and alert. Once the players re-acchatized to the environment they were asked to access the ideal performance state using the trigger. Training was considered complete when the participants reported that emotions normally associated with their optimal performance could be experienced when they remembered the trigger (music).

Intervention Procedure The hypnotic intervention was administered to the three participants in

a small, quiet, and comfortable room on the college campus and lasted about one hour. The training was composed of four stages: Stage 1-relaxation, Stage 2-hypnotic induction, Stage 3-hypnotic regression, and Stage 4-trig- ger control. After the first live training sessions, participants were asked to commit themselves to practice the techniques by playing an audiotape re- cording of the training protocol everyday over seven days between Basehe 1 and intervention phase. To ensure participants had listened to the a~tdotape recordmg, each player was contacted daily.

Following this training, the players began the intervention phase of the design. The players were instructed to imagine the trigger (music) each time they performed a shot. During this stage players were not under hypnosis; instead, they were merely using the trigger conhtioned to the way they felt during the ideal performance. Throughout the intervention the players con- tinued to listen to the audiotape every day until the intervention phase was terminated. Ln total the players were given one live session and seven audo- tape sessions before the intervention phase and about 35 audiotape sessions during intervention.

Before Baseline 2 was initiated the audotapes were retrieved. In every session during Basehe 2 players were instructed to the golf task without the trigger. Confirmation that a trigger was not used during Baseline 2 was obtained by questionnaire.

After Baseline 1, questions related to each participant’s use of the trig- ger were added to the questionnaire. The procedure assessed whether partici- pants consistently used the trigger control. Supplementary questions assessed whether the trigger was ‘turned off’ during Basehe 2.

Assessment of Procedural Reliability To ensure that participants received the same information throughout

the study a number of strategies were employed. For instance, some of the sessions, including a famiharization session prior to the first data collection, were conducted in a group. The sessions were delivered in a standardzed

HYPNOSIS AND FLOW STATES IN GOLF 1065

protocol (see Appendix A, p. 1075). Verification of consistent application of all aspects of the standardized protocol was obtained from an observer.

The internal experience of each player was assessed by a s h g each par- ticipant to complete a questionnaire (see Appendix B, p. 1075) after each trial. This information ~ermit ted ongoing assessment of the quality of the participant’s feehgs, thoughts, and cognitions across baselme and treatment sessions. Data were recorded as ratings and summed for analysis by compar- ing ratings on the baseline trials with those on treatment trials.

Treatment of Data The actual performance scores as plotted indicated accuracy of their at-

tempts. Visual inspection of the data involved use of five criteria to establish the occurrence of the desired effect: (1) when basehe performance was sta- ble or in the direction opposite to that predicted for the treatment, (2) a greater number of times an effect was replicated both within and across sub- jects, (3) fewer overlapping data points between basehe and treatment phases, (4) the sooner the effect was observed after introduction of the treat- ment, and (5) the greater magnitude of the effect judged relative to baseline (Hrycaiko & Martin, 1996).

Practical Assessment To provide information about the effectiveness of the intervention, the

participants completed a practical assessment questionnaire adapted from Kazdin (1992) and Kendall, HrycaLko, Martin, and Kendall (1990). The par- ticipants were asked “How did you feel during the performance,” “What were you thinking during the performance,” “Were there any outside thoughts dstracting you,” “Did you use the trigger,” “Did you experience any problems,” “Were you satisfied with the results following the interven- tion,” “Were the procedures acceptable to you,” “What was the effect of the intervention,” “What were your general beliefs about your perfor- mance,” and “How much effort did you put into today’s performance?”

On completion of the study, participants were given a social validation questionnaire designed to provide information on the importance of the study and the effectiveness of the intervention. Specifically, players were ask- ed whether they (1) perceived the golf task to be important, (2) thought the procedures of the study acceptable, and ( 3 ) felt satisfied with the results (see HrycaLko & Martin, 1996).

RESULTS The performance for each participant is presented in Table 1 and Fig.

1. For each player the hypnotic intervention was followed by an increase in performance accuracy, with Participant 3 &splaying the largest improvement. This finding suggests that the intervention consistently improved the golf- chipping scores.

1066 J. PATES & I. MAYNARD

TABLE 1 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR CHIPPING PERFORMANCE AND FLOW STATE SCALE

Participant Baseline 1 Intervention Baseline 2 M SD M SD M SD

Chipping Performance, cm 1 260 47 70 29 240 25 2 3 00 117 190 78 3 10 68 3 3 60 12 1 240 53 250 45

Flow Stace Scale, rating 1 135 11 146 19 126 25 2 123 16 113 17 106 35 3 14 1 18 152 13 14 1 15

Specifically, Player 1 improved from a mean of 260 cm during :Baseline 1 to a mean of 170 cm during the intervention. This change was immediate with no overlapping data points between Basehe 1 and the intervention.

The performance of Player 2 also immediately improved during the in- tervention with only two overlapping data points between Basehe 1 and the

– – –

intervention. Improvement was from a mean of 300 cm during Baseline 1 to a mean of 190 cm during the intervention. Although Player 3 &d not irn- prove immediately and had six overlapping data points, he showed the lar- gest improvement in accuracy, from a mean of 360 crn during Basehe 1 to 240 cm during the intervention.

In Basehe 2 the scores for Players 1 and 2 returned to levels similar to those prior to the intervention; however, Player 3 showed a different perfor- mance as six of the seven data points from Baseline 2 overlapped scores obtained during the intervention. It appears he retained the effect of the in- tervention throughout Baseline 2.

The scores on the Flow State Scale for each participant are presented in Table 1 and Fig. 2. For two players the hypnotic intervention was followed by an increase in scores, suggesting the intervention increased the intensity of the experience of flow. Player 1’s mean score of 135 during Baseline 1 improved to 146 during the intervention. The effect was not immediate as there were four overlapping data points between Basehe 1 and the inter- vention.

Upon receiving the intervention Player 2’s scores on the Flow State Scale decreased from a mean of 123 during Baseline 1 to 113 during the in- tervention. Closer examination suggests that during the intervention Player 2 either experienced very low, e.g., 82, or very high flow, e.g., 165.

The scores for Player 3 increased from a mean of 141 during Basehe 1 to 152 during the intervention. Despite having the largest increase in scores, Player 3 did not have an immediate change in flow scores as five data points overlapped those obtained in Basehe 1.

HYPNOSIS AND FLOW STATES IN GOLF 1067

Participant 1

1 5 9 13 17 21

Participant 2

Participant 3 6 – ..

a,

L

a, 1 ‘ a 0

1 5 9 13 17 2 1

Trial

-I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Baseline 1

– Baseline 1 Treatment Baseline 2

-I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

FIG. 1. Performance accuracy for each participant on each trial

Treatment

Scores for each participant during Basehe 2 indicated no effect of the intervention. All showed decreased means on flow score throughout Baseline 2 relative to the intervention.

Baseline 2

J. PATES & I. MAYNARD

Participant 1

Participant 2

190 – 170 –

2 8 1 5 0 – ” 0 3 130 – 110 –

90 – 7 0 ,

– Baseline 1 Treatment Baseline 2

Y

Baseline 1 Treatment Baseline 2

-vb

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Participant 3

Trial

190 – 1 7 0 –

0

$ 1 5 0 – 5 130 E

110 – 90 – 70 ,

FIG. 2. Flow scores for each participant on each trial

Baseline 1 Treatment

– , / ~ v ~

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Validation

Examining responses on the practical assessment questionnaire designed to assess their internal experiences, each player indicated he had made sus-

1 5 9 13 17 2 1

HYPNOSIS AND FLOW STATES IN GOLF 1069

tained effort throughout the competition. They also indicated that during the intervention they had used the trigger and stated the intervention had improved their performance. Player 1 indicated that during the intervention phase he had felt more relaxed and confident and his stroke had more rhythm, “my swing was easy. . . made me feel confident, in the zone. . . I got my rhythm.” Moreover, he reported that he had no thoughts about his technique and had felt intense relaxation in his upper body: “My upper body was so relaxed . . . I stopped t h d i n g about the mechanics . . . I was just focused, in the zone.”

Player 2 indicated that he felt more in control of his swing and had im- proved his consistency and control of the ball: “I thought I could put the ball where I wanted. . . I was amazed to see the ball going where I wanted.” However, he stressed that he felt the intervention had compounded the feel- ings and moods he was experiencing on the days of the trials. For example, when he was in a “good mood” the intervention had made him experience a highly intense state of flow, but when he was in a “bad mood” the interven- tion had made him experience feelings not associated with the flow state: “when I began the competition happy, the trigger made me feel excited and alert. . . when I began the competition unhappy, the trigger made me feel worse.”

During these trials when flow scores were low he attributed his im- proved performance during the intervention phase of the study to luck: “when I felt bad I felt my good shots were luck.” In contrast, when flow scores were high, he attributed his improved performance during interven- tion to his ability and the effects of the intervention: “when I felt good, I felt the intervention was working. . . it showed my potential.” This player reported that the music he had used as a trigger often became annoying: “I got fed up listening to my trigger.”

Player 3 indicated that the intervention had made him feel relaxed and extremely confident. He reported that he had felt the intervention had help- ed him concentrate for longer periods of time and perform more consistent- ly: “my performance and concentration was better. . . I hit more shots clos- er.” Further, this player highlighted an absence of worry and increased con- fidence during the intervention: “I forgot t h i n h g about my technique and how I was doing in the competition . . . I started to feel really confident.”

Upon completing the study, each player responded to a social vahda- tion questionnaire. They reported being satisfied with the results of the inter- vention and recognised they had played more consistently.

The aim of this experiment was to investigate the hypothesis that an hypnotic intervention of relaxation, imagery, hypnotic induction, hypnotic

1070 J. PATES & I. MAYNARD

regression, and trigger control techniques would enhance flow and golf-chip- ping performance. The three participants showed improvements in perfor- mance during the intervention. These findings add support to Pates, et al.’s previous findings (in press) that hypnosis may be effective in improving per- formance.

Two of the three participants also showed increases in flow during the intervention, which suggests that for some players the intensity of flow in golf may be increased using hypnotic regression and trigger control tech- niques. These results are relevant for sport psychology practitioners because they suggest hypnotic training may increase personal control over flow states. This finding supports the work of Unestahl (1973, 1975) who indicated that a positive emotion like flow could be initiated through hypnotic regression and then conditions to a trigger, which in turn could be used in a subse- quent event such as athletic competition.

It should be noted that the observed changes in flow were not always consistent with changes in performance. Indeed, during the intervention Player 1’s flow scores were more variable than his performance. This finding is interesting since it is consistent with Jackson and Cskszentm~halyi’s obser- vation (1999) that high performance can occur in the absence of high flow.

Responses to the practical assessment questionnaire indicated that dur- ing the intervention, the players experienced intense relaxation, confidence, and concentration, which seemed at times to overwhelm other thoughts and senses. They also reported feeling more in control of the stroke. These find- ings are consistent with outcomes of a number of clinical experiments (e.g., Damaser, Shor, & Orne, 1963; Wadden & Anderton, 1982; Kirsch, 1994; Crawford, et al., 1996) wherein hypnosis positively controlled emotions, thoughts, perceptions, and feehgs.

The qualitative responses made clear that all three players sustained their effort and motivation throughout the duration of the competition. Also, the hypnotic intervention appeared to amplify moods and cognitions. For example, Player 2 reported that, when he was unhappy, the trigger had made him feel worse. In contrast, when he was happy, the trigger made him feel excited. His flow scores also reflected this mood change. In spite of these fluctuations in mood and flow, this player displayed marked improve- ment in performance accuracy during the intervention. His attribution of performance to luck when his flow scores were low and to ability and the intervention when his flow scores were high may be of interest to attribution theorists because his comments suggest that flow states may alter an athlete’s

– –

perception of cause and effect. This findmg implies caution in using hyp- notic interventions with subjects who experience intense negative moods prior to a competition. Before using hypnosis sports psychologists should

HYPNOSIS AND FLOW STATES IN GOLF 1071

collect psychological information from the athlete and perhaps introduce a program of cognitive restructuring prior to hypnotic intervention for better control.

The contention that hypnotic interventions may affect emotions is fur- ther consistent with both performance and quahtative data collected from Player 3 , as performance scores did not return to Baseline 1 after the inter- vention. This subject indcated that the intervention had increased his self- confidence which he attributed to performance accuracy observed at Base- line 2. One may note findings of Catley and Duda (1997) who stated that confidence was a good predictor of flow and higher performance in recre- ational golfing.

There remains a possibdity, of course, that the improvements in both performance and flow scores are an artifact of subject and experimenter bias. Indeed, neither the subjects nor experimenter were b h d to the outcome, and so experimenter’s expectations or the demand characteristics would af- fect the results. There also remains an issue of a possible Hawthorne effect, the change in performance which occurs merely as a function of being in a study (Drew, 1976). Scrutiny of performers in a single-subject design might heighten this effect. Drew (1976) observed, however, the effect tends to de- cline as the subjects become acclimatized so extending the length of a single- subject study could aid in con t robg this effect. As there were only three subjects, further careful study is required.

The single-subject replication-reversal (ABA) design also allowed exami- nation of change in flow and performance scores and greater confidence that was produced by the intervention rather than another variable, even though only three persons were tested. Specifically, when the treatment was intro- duced all players showed improvement in performance, and when it was withdrawn performance decreased to pre-intervention levels for two of the three players. The abdity to ‘turn on’ or ‘turn off’ behavior each time the in- tervention was introduced or withdrawn provided a demonstration of the internal validity of the treatment (Hrycaiko & Martin, 1996). It also seems less likely that a confounding variable was occurring during introduction or withdrawal of the intervention (Hrycaiko & Martin, 1996). Replication of the findings in the Al3A design with ddferent subjects strengthens conclu- sions of the power and con t rohg force of the intervention (Barlow & Hersen, 1984).

From an experimental design perspective, Al3A type studies have a ma- jor undesirable feature. Unfortunately, this paradigm ends on the baselme phase of the study, so the players did not have full benefits of the experi- mental intervention. In this study the behavior was clearly not irreversible and could be ‘turned on’ by remembering the music trigger. Consequently, lack of a second treatment condition did not appear to be unacceptable or

1072 J. PATES & I. MAYNARD

unethical. An ABAB design was not deemed necessary even though it is con- sidered by many researchers (cf. Hrycaiko & Martin, 1996) to be a more powerful design. ALL three players here supported the intervention on the so- cial vahdation assessment. They have reported they continue to use the tech- nique in competition.

Present findings suggest that the intervention of relaxation, imagery, hypnotic induction, hypnotic regression, and trlggcrs appeared to enhance flow and golf-chipping ~erformance in three players with high handlca~s in golf. Also evidence suggested that hypnosis affected their emotions, thoughts, and perceptions. Further study is required, however, if hypnotic interven- tions are to be accepted by the sports science community. Specifically, the effects of hypnosis with players having low handicaps and elite performers need exploration. More ecologicdy vahd and group-based research methods would contribute to the knowledge base. We recommend that sport psychol- ogists who wish to use these techniques including hypnosis acquire special- ized training and education from mentors with appropriate clinical qualifica- tions and experience.

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Accepted November 20, 2000.

HYPNOSIS AND FLOW STATES IN GOLF

APPENDIX A: THE INTERVENTION CHECKLIST

Signature of Observer: Date:

bzferverz~iorz

Perform progressive muscle relaxation Perform mental imagery relaxation Perform staircase hypnosis induction Perform hypnotic regression technique Condition trigger to a flow experience Have subjects access their ideal performance state uthzing the trigger Have subject complete flow state scale questionnaire To reinforce training give subjects an audiotape recording of the training

Gerieral Commerz~s

Contact subjects daily to check they have played the audiotape recording of the training

Check that the audiotapes have been retrieved before the beginning of the second baseline

Ask if there are any questions Copy questions down and answer them Check understanding wirh subjects

APPENDIX B: PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT QUESTIO

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